Sharon Stoerger
sstoerge@indiana.edu

Introduction: A Question of Power

Cyberfeminism is a complex theory; one that stems from utopian feminist literature and theory. Donna Haraway argues that the "blurring of the boundaries between human and machine will eventually make the categories of male and female obsolete" (Hall, 1996, p. 147). There are many different types of feminism; however, Kira Hall (1996) presents two characterizations of feminism via women engaging in computer-mediated communication: liberal cyberfeminism and radical cyberfeminism. Liberal feminism carries an egalitarian message and embraces the concept of a (non)identity - one that is neither male nor female. Some extend this concept to include the belief that the online world will render gender to be irrelevant and tout the notion that "futuristic technology will free its users from the limitations of the physical world, thereby allowing for a more democratic society" (p. 149). On the other hand, radical feminism concentrates on "women only" or separatist efforts, which have resulted from male initiated behaviors against women. For the purposes of this bibliography, the focus will be on liberal cyberfeminism.

Information is power. This widely used phrase is one that causes many, particularly when tied to the "Information Age" to question whether this means that technology can be translated into power for women. Donna Haraway (1991) believes that communication technology can positively impact the lives of individuals, particularly women. She indicates that communication technology is a "fresh" source of power; one that can "embody and enforce new social relations for women world-wide" (p. 164).

Jennifer Light (1995) also views information technology, particularly computer-mediated communication (CMC) to be potentially empowering to women. Light believes that CMC can be used by women in a number of different ways. For example, CMC can enable women to present diverse perspectives. It can also be used for political mobilization and advocacy even at the grassroots organizational level; and it can be used to be a space for women. In order for the technology to empower women and become "ungendered" or "regendered," though, women must become proactive users. They must express their voice and articulate how they want to interact with the technology, as well as how they envision that activity occurring.

This is not to say that everyone shares these optimistic views. They do not. There are those who find the relationship between women and technology to be problematic. Researchers, like Sandra Harding (1986), cannot imagine day-to-day life without gender differences. Harding emphasizes the notion that that the feminist framework places the problem of gender inequality in the field of technology with women rather than assessing ways these tools could be redesigned to be more appropriate for their users. She also argues from the standpoint that race and culture should also be included in the gender equation. Light (1995) takes a similar position and highlights the work of Naomi Wolf and the notion of "power feminism." Power feminism in this context is viewed as the ability to take unfriendly environments and reshape them to be accommodating to women.

Some believe that technology is gender neutral and new technologies, such as the Internet, allow men and women to interact on equal terms due to the lack of gender identifying cues. Unfortunately, some researchers indicate that there are visible differences between male and female discourse styles on the Internet (Herring, 1993; 2001). Different cognitive styles may also influence the adoption of information technologies by women (Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger, & Tarule, 1986; Gilligan 1982). However, there is evidence that marginalized groups are able to utilize the communication potential of the new technologies to break out of traditional gender boundaries and work through major social development issues (Bruckman, 1993; Subrahmanyam, Greenfield, & Tynes, 2004; Egan, 2000). In fact, the possibility for grassroots organizations to form and for the creation of communities for women provides cause for optimism.

With the recent move towards globalization has come a big push for information technology. One barrier women, particularly those in the Middle East North Africa (MENA) region face, is related to educational opportunities. In fact, eradicating illiteracy among women in the Middle East is still a goal that has yet to be achieved (UNESCO, 1999). Even so, this situation is improving, and "the literacy rate among Arab women has risen from 35 to nearly 48 percent" (The Academy of Science for the Developing World, 2005). According to Rafia Ghubash, president of the Arabian Gulf University, Bahrain, these figures are still lower than most other developing nations. Therefore, the adoption of information technologies at this point has not been considered to be imperative by individuals in this region of the world. (Alshejni, 1999, p. 214).

Arab women who strive to obtain an education and acquire the ability to utilize information and communications technologies (ICT) face overwhelming obstacles. Health issues, such as gender disparity in child mortality (Filmer, King, & Pritchett, 1998) and the impact the Islamic religion has on women can be stifling. In some regions, the Islamic religion by itself has been characterized as an example of "male and state power" in these regions (Mojab, 1998, p. 19).

In areas where females have greater access to educational opportunities, such as Jordan, there are still limits. Fida Adely describes several factors that cause women to leave school. For example, a significant amount of weight is given to exam scores, and female students who are placed in the vocational track are often labeled "not smart" (Adely, 2004, p. 369). Adely also points out other repercussions that fall heavily on the girls, such as the "potential for scandal" on the family (p. 372).

However, the Internet can provide females the opportunity to interact with males in a private rather than in a public space. This opportunity and potential allows for women to interact with individuals that they might not otherwise, including members of the opposite sex. The technology also provides women the opportunity to access educational opportunities from a distance via e-learning initiatives (Sales, 1999; Sehoole & Moja, 2004).

Unfortunately, the move by those in the MENA region towards technology is not without its problems. In 2004, the Greater Middle East had the lowest levels of Internet connectivity in the world, which is creating a "digital divide" between that region and the rest of the world (GME Initiative Working Paper, 2004). Part of the problem lies in that the creation of "interconnection, interdependency, and homogeneity of all global areas" has been considered to be "invasive" (Farhi, 1999, p. 207). Many individuals in the Middle East believe that the Internet symbolizes the West and the promotion of problematic ideas; and this in turn creates cultural rather than technical or financial obstacles (Alshejni, 1999, p. 216).

If women are not a part of information technology initiatives, then the gender inequalities that currently exist in education will continue to grow rather than shrink. In 1995, the United Nations' Fourth World Conference on Women Platform for Action Education and Training of Women outlined several strategic objectives regarding the issue of the education and training of women. One objective included in this document is the goal of striving towards the improvement of women's access to vocational training, science and technology, and continuing education (United Nations, 1995). If they are able to obtain technological training, the use of the Internet may be the vehicle necessary to provide Arab women a private forum that would enable them to use a voice that would be prohibited in public.

Technology does not have the "capacity to remedy social problems" (Light, 1995). It is not a "technological fix" that will cure the world's social and political ills (Weinberg, 1994). However, technology does possess certain capabilities that enable marginalized groups, such as women in the MENA region, to take steps toward eventual change.

This annotated bibliography is divided into six sections: 1) Adoption and Usage of Technology; 2) Advocacy via Technology; 3) Censorship; 4) The Digital Divide; 5) Women and Education; and 6) Women and Islam. Due to their rich discussion of multiple topics, some articles can be found in more than one category. Articles categorized in the Adoption and Usage and Technology category present issues, such as infrastructure and access. Those in the Advocacy via Technology section touch upon the ways in which these tools can be used to promote a public voice. The Censorship section includes articles that address efforts the governments in the MENA region are taking to control technologies, such as the Internet, while the Digital Divide section highlights gender initiatives and the possibility of closing the gap. Articles in the Women and Education section examine some of the day-to-day problems that may hinder women's participation in the "information revolution"; and finally, the Women and Islam section points to individuals advocating Arab feminism and the role Islam plays in women's rights.

The items selected for inclusion concentrate on the barriers Arab women, particularly those in the MENA region, face in acquiring the skills, knowledge set, and access to information communication technologies, such as the Internet. This bibliography also includes publications that illustrate the ways in which those who do have the opportunity to acquire these skills use the Internet to develop their voice to advocate for gender equality. In the words of Donna Haraway (1991), "cyborg writing is about the power to survive, not on the basis of original innocence, but on the basis of seizing the tools to mark the world that marked them as other" (p. 175).

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Burkart, G. E., & Older, S. (2003). The information revolution in the Middle East and North Africa. Santa Monica, CA: RAND. Retrieved March 15, 2006, from http://www.rand.org/pubs/monograph_reports/2005/MR1653.pdf
While not specifically targeting women, this report provides a good discussion about the Internet in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region. Some of the topics included in the discussion are key deficits affecting access to the technology. Different measurements designed to get at the primary issues associated with women, as well as equality and equity in the region are addressed.

The Internet is seen as a tool that can open windows for women in the MENA region. Progress is being made but there is still a long way to go. Cultural and social issues can pose problems and hold countries back from economic progress. These issues, plus the likelihood of individuals leaving the region in search of better opportunities that an information society affords, otherwise known as "brain drain," are also presented in this report.

Dahan, M. (n.d.). Internet usage in the Middle East. Some political and social implications. Retrieved March 15, 2006, from http://www.mevic.org/papers/inet-mena.html
Technology, particularly information and communications technology (ICT), is seen as the key to development in Middle Eastern countries. The Middle East North Africa (MENA) region is one of the most underrepresented areas of the world in terms of Internet connectivity. Anti-Internet forces and the desire to control the flow of information have served to inhibit the growth and expansion of new technologies. However, there are pro-Internet forces at work as well within various sectors of these countries.

Several themes identified by Ithiel da Sola Pool, a political scientist, are discussed in this article. They include topics like access to diverse information and the promotion of effective means of communication. It is also noted that some of the diverse information made available through the ICT is also banned in the print and news media, which means that it is unavailable to people in the MENA region in the more traditional forms.

Some countries in the MENA region have been slowly moving towards the implementation of ICT. For example, Saudi Arabia has licensed 37 Internet service providers (ISPs) and has granted women permission to go online as long as they are not in the same room as men. Another country that is making progress in terms of Internet use is Israel. The percentages of men and women online (59 percent male; 41 percent female) in Israel are the most egalitarian in the region. Even though countries in the MENA region are moving towards ICT, the governments still find themselves trying to walk the fine line between the "information revolution" and the need to maintain tradition, culture, and values.

Dholakia, R., Dholakia, N., & Kshetri, N. (2003). Gender and Internet usage. In H. Bidgoli (Ed.), The Internet encyclopedia (pp. 12-22). New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
This article discusses the gender gap that exists when it comes to Internet adoption and usage. Data show that the gap is closing or has closed, even in more restricted areas of the world, such as the Middle East. Examples of this can be seen in countries like Saudi Arabia and Kuwait. In Saudi Arabia, the percentage of women who access the Internet is 66 percent. In Kuwait, the number of women who access the Internet is 50 percent. These numbers are significant when considering that the proportion of female Internet users in the Arab states as a whole is between four to six percent.

A number of other issues are also addressed in this article. Topics such as the width and depth of technological adoption and the need for women to be a part of the Internet and the Internet decision-making process are merely a few examples. Training initiatives for women are also emphasized.

Farhi, F. (1999). Information and communication technologies and identity politics in Iran. In W. Harcourt, (Ed.), Women @ Internet (pp. 206-213). London: Zed Press.
Iran faces a dilemma in the era of globalization. They have the infrastructure in place for the Internet, but very few people have access to it - hardware is expensive, the Internet is predominantly an English-language forum, and there are numerous restrictions in place that users are required to "go around" in order to access unsanctioned information. In an attempt to avoid physical invasion, some countries in the Middle East have moved toward technologies, such as the Internet. But at the same time, they have placed a significant price on the country's cultural values. In fact, other media are heavily restricted, particularly in their representation of Arab women, and the government would like to have the same type of control over new media, like the Internet. Farhi discusses these concerns and looks at new ways for women to interact in public spaces.

The boundaries between men and women, and the West and tradition, are shifting for Iran. As globalization forces try to invade the culture, some Iranians are working to push those efforts back and retain their traditions. Many are investigating ways to use tools like the Internet to provide women in areas like Iran ways to interact in public spaces. One question that must be addressed is how to go about promoting women's rights via technological solutions in countries with religiously repressive regimes.

Ghashghai, E., & Lewis, R. (2002). Issues affecting Internet use in Afghanistan and developing countries in the Middle East. Retrieved March 15, 2006, from the RAND Issue Papers Web site: http://rand.org/pubs/issue_papers/2005/IP231.pdf
Information and communications technology (ICT) are viewed as the key infrastructure in the development and growth of economics in Afghanistan and the Middle East. Much of the publicity surrounding these efforts is designed to attract the attention of investors. However, such discussions ignore the plight of marginalized people in the region. They also ignore the possibility of building on existing strengths. This paper outlines two steps to facilitate Internet usage in Afghanistan and the Middle East.

The digital divide is a fact of life in Afghanistan and developing countries in the Middle East. This is clear despite the fact that accurate data assessing this issue is rarely available. The authors discuss possible reasons behind the divide, including the domination of the English language on the Internet, governmental restrictions, and cultural issues.

In closing, the authors outline their two-step approach to increasing Internet access and usage in Afghanistan and the Middle East. Prior to these steps, a feasibility analysis should be performed to more effectively and efficiently reveal the benefits associated with this technology to the people in the region. Once that has been completed, the two steps may be undertaken. The first step is to conduct research on the potential uses. Step two involves establishing a prototype Internet center. The costs associated with establishing an information infrastructure may be high, but the authors note that the costs associated with not doing anything may be higher.

Iran CSOs Training & Research Center. (2005). A report on the status of the Internet in Iran. Retrieved February 17, 2006, from http://www.genderit.org/upload/ad6d215b74e2a8613f0cf5416c9f3865/A_Report_on_Internet_Access_in_Iran_2_.pdf
The Iranian government is dealing with a difficult situation. On the one hand, they want to promote new technologies such as the Internet. On the other hand, they want to have the same control over this new technology that they do with other media. In fact, they have already started licensing all Internet service providers (ISPs). Access to the Internet is controlled and monitored by the government. The Internet is sometimes seen as a place where people in countries like Iran can escape from restrictions, and people do not stop trying to outmaneuver the government's efforts of control.

Media outlets in Iran are owned and run by the government. There are policies in place to deal with those who violate these regulations. This in turn has caused many media outlets to engage in self-censorship in an attempt to avoid accusations and punishment. When it comes to the Internet, though, the Iranian government is a bit behind. This is due in part because of the Internet's rapid growth.

Filtering systems are one way the government is attempting to implement control over content. According to this report, the main words subject to censorship are English words related to sex, sexuality, and birth - basically any term dealing with sexual health, the health of women, and other medical issues. In fact, a search on the term "women" will produce no results. However, the Internet remains one of the least restricted sources of communication and information in Iran, which means there is still the possibility it could be used to bring attention to the issues affecting women in the area.

Rahimi, B. (2003). Cyberdissent: The Internet in revolutionary Iran. Middle East Review of International Affairs, 7(3). Retrieved March 9, 2006, from http://meria.idc.ac.il/journal/2003/issue3/jv7n3a7.html
The Internet is proving to be a powerful tool in the promotion of political communication, as well as scientific and technological advancement in Iran. This article begins by presenting a history of Iran's Internet use, and emphasizes that Internet use is rapidly expanding in this country. However, the government owned entities have been challenged by the changing nature of the technology and have found it difficult to keep up. Despite this fact, families who can afford a computer have one, and the use of the Internet by students enrolled in universities, particularly women, has also seen an increase in Internet use. Internet cafés have also become very popular.

There are a number of ways people in Iran use the Internet. Among young people, there has been a rise in the popularity of coffee-nets (voice chats). Internet sites and blogs are also very popular. In fact, Iranian women "are finding in blogs an alternative medium of expression that is denied them in real public spaces."

This article also discusses the Internet and the role the Islamic Republic plays in its development. An historical picture outlining past governmental procedures involving other media, such as print and broadcast, are presented, which sets the stage for the direction intended for the Internet. Censorship activities are also part of this discussion. The article concludes by pointing out the limitations and possibilities associated with new technologies, such as the Internet.

Teitelbaum, J. (2002). Dueling for Da'wa: State vs. society on the Saudi Internet. Middle East Journal, 56(2), 222-239. Retrieved March 15, 2006, from http://www.tau.ac.il/dayancenter/Teitelbaum.pdf
The focus of this article is on the blessing and the curse that is the Internet for the Saudis. On the one hand, the Saudi government wrestles with modernization and economic growth. While on the other hand, they try to maintain the traditional values of the culture and society. This provides a number of conflicting and complicated matters for the areas leaders to address.

Most of this article discusses the government's battle against the globalization effects of the Internet. However, one section does address ways that the Internet is liberating for women. For example, Teitelbaum highlights the notion that the Internet allows women to socialize, often with members of the opposite sex - activities that would not be allowed in public forums. One point to emphasize is the notion of anonymity, which is the key that allows women to unlock the door that allows them to explore the mixed sex world of the Internet.

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Alshejni, L. (1999). Unveiling the Arab woman's voice through the net. In W. Harcourt, (Ed.), Women @ Internet (pp. 214-218). London: Zed Press.
Arab women's voices in the public realm are often stifled. However, the Internet has the potential to be a space where these women can express their thoughts and advocate for causes that would improve their way of life. At the time this chapter was written in 1999, Arab women had not yet realized the full potential of this tool. Due to high rates of illiteracy, particularly among women, the implementation and use of the Internet was not deemed a priority. Alshejni examines this issue by dividing this chapter into five parts: freeing the voice of Arab women; Arab women's status; the Internet and cultural boundaries; Arab women's voices on the Net; and moving from the virtual to the real world.

In the Arab world, the Internet is viewed as a "Western" tool. The domination of English on the Internet does nothing to discourage this notion. This tension between the West and the emphasis on tradition and culture in the Arab world causes countries in the Middle East North Africa (MENA) region to move towards the Islamic region and away newer technologies. The policies of certain Islamic regimes in this region discourage women from educating themselves and invoking their voices. NGOs and other agencies that work on behalf of women have discovered the value associated with the use of the Internet and recognize the ways in which this tool can give a voice to Arab women.

Anastacio, A, & Female Students from the Universities of Kabul. (2005, July). Community impact assessment of the Cisco Networking Academy Program Gender Initiative. San Jose, CA: Cisco Learning Institute and Cisco Systems, Inc.
The purpose of this report is to examine the successes and the barriers women face in the Cisco Networking Academy Program. It also goes beyond that scope to include an investigation into the effectiveness of the Gender Initiative on the Afghan community. This study involved interview and questionnaire procedures and was conducted over a 10 day period in June 2005. The questions were translated from English into Dari, the local language, because of concerns the researchers had regarding the ability of respondents to understand English.

A number of different players were included in the study sample. CISCO instructors, CISCO male students, CISCO female students, CISCO female graduates, CISCO academic management, private sector representatives, USAID/UNDP agents, NGO agency employees, and individuals from the government sector. It is important to note that the study sample was too small to make any generalizations about the findings.

Overall, respondents were satisfied with the information technology (IT) and gender initiatives and would like to see the CISCO Academies continue to grow. Respondents would also like to see more practical work during the courses. Most female respondents preferred co-educational classes, especially if the gender ratio is balanced. More needs to be done in terms of job placement for women. In fact, only one woman had found a job after graduating from the CISCO program. And finally, because IT will continue to play an important role in Afghanistan, more aggressive steps need to be taken to make the public aware of these programs in an attempt to attract more women into the IT field.

Bickel, B. (2003). Weapons of magic: Afghan women asserting voice via the net. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 8(2). Retrieved March 15, 2006, from http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol8/issue2/bickel.html
The Revolutionary Association of Women of Afghanistan (RAWA) is the lens the author uses to examine the use of the Internet by women. Women involved in RAWA learned how to set up a Web site in 1997. This site has served, not only to tell their story, but also the story of other women in the area. It has also served as an educational tool to teach others about the struggles women face. This includes ones that go beyond the much publicized burqua issue as touted by the West or struggles against the simplistic message of good versus evil.

Individuals in the West have discovered the messages presented by the RAWA Web site. The attention of individuals who have the ability to amplify the group's message, like Oprah Winfrey and Eve Ensler has also been captured by the site. The Internet has been recognized as a powerful tool, but it is not clear what the ramifications will be for Afghan women and for RAWA if any changes to this tool occur.

Centre for Media Freedom - Middle East and North Africa CMF MENA. (2000). Women's rights and the Arab media. Retrieved March 15, 2006, from http://www.cmfmena.org/publications/womens_rights.rtf
The primary focus of this document is on the media representation of women. This is important because the Arab media has not done a very good job of accurately portraying women in the region nor the issues they face. In fact, the Arab media continues to "disseminate negative reporting and stereotyping of Arab women." One example of this is the portrayal of women as "wife, mother or temptress." Another example is that, in the past, stories about domestic violence issues were never covered because they were regarded as an "internal family matter." Even though the focus is on the media, the importance of women, the information society, and its relationship to the Arab media is also emphasized.

Several organizations are working to combat the concerns associated with women and the media. Suggestions about using the media, as well as information and communications technology (ICT) to promote women are also included in the discussion. The activities of organizations that have made it their mission to educate the media, such as Center for Arab Women Training and Research (CAWTAR) are also included. The end of the report includes a directory of international, regional, and national contacts, as well as Web sites about the inequities surrounding the relationship between women and the media.

Farhi, F. (1999). Information and communication technologies and identity politics in Iran. In W. Harcourt, (Ed.), Women @ Internet (pp. 206-213). London: Zed Press.
Iran faces a dilemma in the era of globalization. They have the infrastructure in place for the Internet, but very few people have access to it - hardware is expensive, the Internet is predominantly an English-language forum, and there are numerous restrictions in place that users are required to "go around" in order to access unsanctioned information. In an attempt to avoid physical invasion, some countries in the Middle East have moved toward technologies, such as the Internet. But at the same time, they have placed a significant price on the country's cultural values. In fact, other media are heavily restricted, particularly in their representation of Arab women, and the government would like to have the same type of control over new media, like the Internet. Farhi discusses these concerns and looks at new ways for women to interact in public spaces.

The boundaries between men and women, and the West and tradition, are shifting for Iran. As globalization forces try to invade the culture, some Iranians are working to push those efforts back and retain their traditions. Many are investigating ways to use tools like the Internet to provide women in areas like Iran ways to interact in public spaces. One question that must be addressed is how to go about promoting women's rights via technological solutions in countries with religiously repressive regimes.

Gajjala, R. (1999). 'Third World' perspectives on cyberfeminism. Development in Practice, 9(5), 616-619.
One point Gajjala emphasizes in this article is that cybertechnology is a way for women to empower themselves. Authors, like Donna Haraway and Sandra Harding are brought into discussion to provide a theoretical, cyberfeminist framework. Empowerment, as well as cyberfeminism and its role in the Third World are other issues under consideration.

Empowerment is a key term in cyberfeminism, and the author notes that it "implies the absolute powerlessness of the individual being empowered." Instead of de-empowerment, the concept of re-empowerment is proposed.

The Third World is becoming connected to Internet technologies, and women need to be part of this initiative in order not to miss out on the benefits associated with these tools. Women need to learn how to access and use a wide variety of technologies. There is an automatic assumption that more women on the Internet automatically ensure a more egalitarian world. Gajjala closes by warning that cyberfeminist prescriptions are just a band-aid that does not get at the heart of the real issue, such as the real lives of the women in the South.

Moghadam, V. M., & Senftova, L. (2005). Measuring women's empowerment: participation and rights in civil, political, social, economic, and cultural domains. International Social Science Journal, 57(184), 389-412. Retrieved March 15, 2006, from the Blackwell-Synergy database.
Moghadam and Senftova examine the issue of women's empowerment and gender equality. They use Women in Development (WID) and Gender and Development (GAD), as well as the capabilities approach as a way to frame their discussion. Giele's framework is also discussed in great detail, and several advantages are noted, particularly the fact that it may be applied across various types of economic, political, and cultural systems. In addition to the discussion about these frameworks, the authors also fold in their own framework, which includes seven indicators. The authors stress that their framework maintains the spirit of the Beijing Platform for Action.

This article does not include a plethora of information specifically about women, information and communications technology (ICT), and the Middle East North Africa (MENA) region. However, tables detailing the figures for countries in that area of the world are provided. One thing to note, though, is the significant amount of unreported data for countries in the MENA region.

Mojab, S. (2001). The politics of "cyberfeminism" in the Middle East: The case of Kurdish women. Race, Gender & Class, 8(4), 42. Retrieved February 17, 2006, from the GenderWatch database.
The Internet is often seen as a way to advance women's studies and promote activism - "empowering women through activism in the virtual space." Utopian visions of the way new technologies such as the Internet can be used are often challenged, and online behaviors begin to mimic those found in real life situations. This, the author believes, results in two views of cyberspace: one that is positive and one that is negative for women. The positive view recognizes the technology's ability to be a neutral space for men and women to interact. On the other hand, the negative view rejects the notion that the technology is neutral and notes the domination that still exists in this environment.

In addition to presenting a discussion solely about the Internet, this article also examines Kurdish women and their use of information and communications technology (ICT). Kurdish women have experienced oppression in their lives, and the author discusses the historical perspective of the lives of these women. Some are seeking refuge in cyberspace, but this is not always easy. For example, Mojab points out that the Middle Eastern states often deny Kurdish women a "space in the creation of knowledge." This includes online and offline venues.

There are national organizations working on behalf of Kurdish women, and they are using the Internet to disseminate information. An example of such an organization is the International Kurdish Women's Studies Network (http://www.oise.utoronto.ca/projects/kwnet). There are some limitations, such as language barriers, inadequate resources, and real life gender issues - honor killings, defacing, prostitution, and suicide. High rates of illiteracy also serve to restrict Kurdish women's abilities to fully utilize cyberspace. The author concludes by noting that cyberspace cannot create feminist movements, but it can allow movements to utilize this tool to address issues associated with gender inequality.

Newsom, V. A., & Lengel, L. (2003). The power of the weblogged word: Contained empowerment in the Middle East North Africa region. Feminist Media Studies, 3(3), 360-363. Retrieved March 15, 2006, from the Communication & Mass Media Complete database.
Newsom and Lengel examine Internet and weblogging, and discuss ways these tools can be used for personal empowerment. Their focus concentrates on enabling women in the Middle East North Africa (MENA) region to take advantage of the power these information communication tools can provide. Another point of discussion also centers around the use of weblogs to create social and cultural changes.

Weblogs or blogs provide women a way to tell their own stories and reach out to others. One point the authors make is that the Internet can be a "passport" for women. At the same time, though, they note that this tool is also a patriarchal construct, and its use is often dictated by off-line cultural norms. These societal factors may hamper women's use of the Internet, but the authors emphasize that it cannot entirely erase the positive aspects associated with blogging by women in this area.

Piecowye, J. (2003). Habitus in transition? CMC use and impacts among young women in the United Arab Emirates. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 8(2). Retrieved March 9, 2006, from http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol8/issue2/piecowye.html
The rapidly changing technological environment is having an impact on the culture in the United Arab Emirates (U.A.E.). Female students in the U.A.E. can decide on their own which elements of global culture they will adopt as their own. This endeavor is undertaken within a context where the females also preserve features of their own values, practices, and traditions. The question then becomes whether computer-mediated communication (CMC) has an impact on the lives of female students and how their lives are altered as a result of the technology. In some respects, many of the struggles presented in this article are somewhat similar to those presented in the novel Nervous Conditions by Tsitsi Dangarembga.

The author discusses the technological changes occurring in the U.A.E. through a cultural theory lens. A discussion prefacing the notion of females and technology in this environment is one that addresses the definition of culture, culture and the individual, and culture as a social foundation. The article then launches into an examination of the findings resulting from a study of 22 U.A.E. national, female university students. These individuals participated in a two-month email exchange with a group of students in London.

The U.A.E. students are very different from their mothers. They study English as a foreign language and are taught by a predominantly Western faculty. These young females, and others their age, are more likely to adopt technology than those in their parents' generation. A high percentage (94%) report feeling comfortable using computers and have been using the Internet for three to four years. The connections the females have with others via CMC serve to emphasize the differences between the two groups. However, the consumer culture plays a role in their lives and causes the female students to question which aspects of their own culture they should keep. The technology allows them the freedom to choose which pieces they acquire and mix with their "own forms of expression."

Rahimi, B. (2003). Cyberdissent: The Internet in revolutionary Iran. Middle East Review of International Affairs, 7(3). Retrieved March 9, 2006, from http://meria.idc.ac.il/journal/2003/issue3/jv7n3a7.html
The Internet is proving to be a powerful tool in the promotion of political communication, as well as scientific and technological advancement in Iran. This article begins by presenting a history of Iran's Internet use, and emphasizes that Internet use is rapidly expanding in this country. However, the government owned entities have been challenged by the changing nature of the technology and have found it difficult to keep up. Despite this fact, families who can afford a computer have one, and the use of the Internet by students enrolled in universities, particularly women, has also seen an increase in Internet use. Internet cafés have also become very popular.

There are a number of ways people in Iran use the Internet. Among young people, there has been a rise in the popularity of coffee-nets (voice chats). Internet sites and blogs are also very popular. In fact, Iranian women "are finding in blogs an alternative medium of expression that is denied them in real public spaces."

This article also discusses the Internet and the role the Islamic Republic plays in its development. An historical picture outlining past governmental procedures involving other media, such as print and broadcast, are presented, which sets the stage for the direction intended for the Internet. Censorship activities are also part of this discussion. The article concludes by pointing out the limitations and possibilities associated with new technologies, such as the Internet.

Riverbend. (2005). Baghdad burning: Girl blog from Iraq. New York: The Feminist Press.
This book presents the entries posted by a female Iraqi blogger named Riverbend from August 2003 through September 2004. Riverbend is a young computer science graduate who worked for an Iraqi database/software company in Baghdad as programmer/network administrator. She proudly notes, "I made as much money as my two male colleagues and got an equal amount of respect from the manager" (p. 22).

Many of Riverbend's entries provide an insightful, first-hand look at life in Baghdad during the United States' ongoing occupation of Iraq. She discusses the activities of many of the players in the occupation, such as Bremer, Chalabi, and the group she refers to as the "Puppet Council."

Even though accounts of the war are the focus, Riverbend provides a glimpse into the lives of women in Iraq before and during the occupation. Relationships with family, friends, and the community in general are discussed, as are women's roles within these contexts. Before the occupation, Iraqi women had many freedoms - university education and access to professional fields like computer science and medicine. However, the war changed that and policies, such as the secular Iraqi family law became one based on Islami Shari'a. This move, also known as decision No. 173, outraged many Iraqi women and men. "This latest decision is going to be catastrophic for females - we are going backwards" (p. 182).

One interesting thing to highlight is the way another blogger tried to steal Riverbend's voice. An ex-military, retired GOP team leader named "Troy" set up a fake "Baghdad Burning" site. The content of the site was the complete opposite of the one maintained by Riverbend and was an attempt to make her look bad. Troy did not succeed, and Riverbend still expresses her voice via the Baghdad Burning site.

NOTE: March 27, 2006 - Riverbend has been longlisted for the £30,000 Samuel Johnson Prize, which is "Britain's most valuable award in non-fiction." (http://enjoyment.independent.co.uk/books/news/article353842.ece)

Shade, L. R. (2002). Gender & community in the social construction of the Internet. New York: Peter Lang.
As more and more people get online, there is a greater chance that women - particularly those at lower socioeconomic levels - may get left behind. Information and communications technology, or ICT, may help promote community development and initiatives.

The author points out that there has been a significant amount of activity surrounding the Global Information Infrastructure (GII), but gender issues have yet to be addressed. One discussion includes getting more women involved in the Global Knowledge 97: Knowledge for Development in the Information Age conference. After Beijing, several objectives focused on women and the media, which served to recognize women's electronic networks and training. Other groups, such as WomenWatch, were formed post-Beijing to address issues, like action and mobilization through electronic communication, security, and ways to develop a hospitable environment for women.

The final aspect of this chapter is to address the opportunities and concerns associated with ICT. Opportunities presented include the occasion for women to break through isolated social situations and to seek out new employment options. Concerns dealing with user-centered designs, training and education, and policy formation are also noted. The corporatization of Internet development is also noted, as is the notion of investigating partnerships with companies like Microsoft. Overall, important points to keep in mind are looking at what works in those cultures, considering local concerns, and investigating e-commerce initiatives that will allow women to gain economic self-sufficiency.

Sreberny, A. (2005). Gender, empowerment, and communication: Looking backwards and forwards. International Social Science Journal, 57(184), 285-300.
There are two lenses that serve to guide the direction of an argument for communication rights for women. Communication rights in this context are designed to include the media and information and communications technology (ICT). The first is a gender lens, while the other is through an examination of the 4 Rs: representation, rights, recognition, and redistribution. This article also emphasizes the importance of communication technology for women - to have their voices heard and to have a space to communication with each other and with those around the world.

Concerns and barriers with these two views are also addressed. Illiteracy, design of software and training, and jobs and employment are just a few of the issues discussed in this article. Another area that is also included in this discussion is the ability for women to maintain their voice in this battle for communication rights. One point the authors emphasize is the need for women take on this fight because men are not going to do it for them.

An item of note: One section of this article discusses technology in Iran. The authors highlight the role women bloggers play in that society. They also emphasize their high level of activity on the Internet.

Teitelbaum, J. (2002). Dueling for Da'wa: State vs. society on the Saudi Internet. Middle East Journal, 56(2), 222-239. Retrieved March 15, 2006, from http://www.tau.ac.il/dayancenter/Teitelbaum.pdf
The focus of this article is on the blessing and the curse that is the Internet for the Saudis. On the one hand, the Saudi government wrestles with modernization and economic growth. While on the other hand, they try to maintain the traditional values of the culture and society. This provides a number of conflicting and complicated matters for the areas' leaders to address.

Most of this article discusses the government's battle against the globalization effects of the Internet. However, one section does address ways that the Internet is liberating for women. For example, Teitelbaum highlights the notion that the Internet allows women to socialize, often with members of the opposite sex - activities that would not be allowed in public forums. One point to emphasize is the notion of anonymity, which is the key that allows women to unlock the door that allows them to explore the mixed sex world of the Internet.

Wheeler, D. (2001). New technologies, old culture: A look at women, gender, and the Internet in Kuwait. In C. Ess & F. Sudweeks (Eds.), Culture, technology, and communication (pp. 187-212). New York: SUNY Press.
Many believe that the Internet can be used to liberate women by allowing them to present their voices. However, it is not clear whether women in more repressed regions of the world, such as the Middle East, will be able to overcome the deep digital divide that exists for them. This article examines Kuwait - a conservative, Islamic country with restrictive social and cultural practices.

The use of the Internet is on the rise in Kuwait. One sign of affluence in this country is for citizens to get access to the technologies. Enabling its citizens to obtain access to tools, like the Internet, has been a goal for the Kuwaiti government. In fact, they want to be the first techno-culture in the region. One interesting point of note is based on survey data from Kuwait. These data indicate that age, literacy, level of education, and other socioeconomic factors may be more important than gender in determining who has access to the Internet.

A number of other issues related to gender and technology are also addressed in this article. Access to the Internet from home, chatting among young people, and utilizing cybercafés to access the Internet are also discussed. Wheeler also notes the gender boundaries that exist in the real (governmental housing, education, the concrete ceiling) and virtual worlds (segregated seating in cybercafés, reinforcement of stereotypes about girls and technology). Stories presented by three women illustrate their use of Internet technologies in this type of culture. Women in Kuwait may not be on equal footing with the men in that society, but they are experiencing new social encounters in cyberspace.

Wheeler, D. L. (2004). Blessings and curses: Women and the Internet revolution in the Arab world. In N. Sakr (Ed.), Women and media in the Middle East: Power through self-expression (pp. 138-161). London: I. B. Tauris & Co. Ltd.
The positive aspects of the Internet revolution have passed by women in the Arab world, and many remain untouched by the technology. Researchers believe that women in this region represent individuals who are in the deepest part of the digital divide. This chapter is designed to examine and question that assumption.

Access to technologies, such as the Internet is coming slowly, but it is coming. It is difficult to judge the total number of individuals who do have access to the Internet because of the proliferation of Internet cafés. Wheeler points out that one problem is determining exactly how many individuals have access to these cafés, and likens them to newspaper access via cafés during the 19th century.

The technology and the information society are often seen as solutions to issues related to poverty. This technology has the potential to allow women to express their "autonomous voices," "reshape their lives" (p. 143), and bring a new face to Middle East feminism. In order for this to happen, though, women in this region must overcome barriers, such as illiteracy and male domination; otherwise there is the risk that they will be left behind.

This chapter includes interviews with Internet active women from several countries in this region including Egypt, Morocco, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Bahrain. The challenges these women face in accessing the Internet, as well as their online activities are presented. Each woman has a different story to tell, but there are similar themes running throughout the narratives. They talk about illiteracy, access issues - including censorship, and financial and social barriers, the importance of Internet cafés, and the use by youth culture. One of the more interesting discussions presented in this article is the one about youth cyberdating, which is the way young people learn how to safely interact with member of the opposite sex.

Wheeler, D. L. (2003). The Internet and youth subculture in Kuwait. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 8(2). Retrieved March 15, 2006, from http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol8/issue2/wheeler.html
More and more young people in Kuwait are accessing the Internet. Many believe that this interest among the youth in this country will lead to significant changes in Kuwaiti society. At the time this article was published, three-fourths of the students attending Kuwait University were active Internet users. Signs among these individuals indicated that they were experimenting with mixed sex relationships even thought the rules governing face-to-face interactions were still in place.

Because or in spite of the rules restricting face-to-face interactions, many Kuwaiti young people prefer to surf the Internet. The Internet has become a vital tool for communication and entertainment activities. Chatting is particularly popular with this group, and many are involved in cyberdating activities. On a more moderate level, chatting allows young women in this region to learn about the opposite sex and obtain "first-hand knowledge of how men think."

The findings presented in this article show a rather positive side of Internet communication among the Kuwaiti youth culture. Not all researchers share Wheeler's interpretation. Mazeedi and Ismail are two researchers who took a more negative slant and concluded that the type of communication that crossed gender lines and without parental knowledge "represented immoral behaviors." The stories of six Internet users - both male and female - are presented in an attempt to allow them a voice to tell their side of the story.

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Dahan, M. (n.d.). Internet usage in the Middle East. Some political and social implications. Retrieved March 15, 2006, from http://www.mevic.org/papers/inet-mena.html
Technology, particularly information and communications technology (ICT), is seen as the key to development in Middle Eastern countries. The Middle East North Africa (MENA) region is one of the most underrepresented areas of the world in terms of Internet connectivity. Anti-Internet forces and the desire to control the flow of information have served to inhibit the growth and expansion of new technologies. However, there are pro-Internet forces at work as well within various sectors of these countries.

Several themes identified by Ithiel da Sola Pool, a political scientist, are discussed in this article. They include topics like access to diverse information and the promotion of effective means of communication. It is also noted that some of the diverse information made available through the ICT is also banned in the print and news media, which means that it is unavailable to people in the MENA region in the more traditional forms.

Some countries in the MENA region have been slowly moving towards the implementation of ICT. For example, Saudi Arabia has licensed 37 Internet service providers (ISPs) and has granted women permission to go online as long as they are not in the same room as men. Another country that is making progress in terms of Internet use is Israel. The percentages of men and women online (59 percent male; 41 percent female) in Israel are the most egalitarian in the region. Even though countries in the MENA region are moving towards ICT, the governments still find themselves trying to walk the fine line between the "information revolution" and the need to maintain tradition, culture, and values.

Iran CSOs Training & Research Center. (2005). A report on the status of the Internet in Iran. Retrieved February 17, 2006, from http://www.genderit.org/upload/ad6d215b74e2a8613f0cf5416c9f3865/A_Report_on_Internet_Access_in_Iran_2_.pdf
The Iranian government is dealing with a difficult situation. On the one hand, they want to promote new technologies such as the Internet. On the other hand, they want to have the same control over this new technology that they do with other media. In fact, they have already started licensing all Internet service providers (ISPs). Access to the Internet is controlled and monitored by the government. The Internet is sometimes seen as a place where people in countries like Iran can escape from restrictions, and people do not stop trying to outmaneuver the government's efforts of control.

Media outlets in Iran are owned and run by the government. There are policies in place to deal with those who violate the policies. This in turn has caused many media outlets to engage in self-censorship in an attempt to avoid accusations and punishment. When it comes to the Internet, though, the Iranian government is a bit behind. This is due in part because of the Internet's rapid growth.

Filtering systems are one way the government is attempting to implement control over content. According to this report, the main words subject to censorship are English words related to sex, sexuality, and birth - basically any term dealing with sexual health, the health of women, and other medical issues. In fact, a search on the term "women" will produce no results. However, the Internet remains one of the least restricted sources of communication and information in Iran, which means there is still the possibility it could be used to bring attention to the issues affecting women in the area.

Rahimi, B. (2003). Cyberdissent: The Internet in revolutionary Iran. Middle East Review of International Affairs, 7(3). Retrieved March 9, 2006, from http://meria.idc.ac.il/journal/2003/issue3/jv7n3a7.html
The Internet is proving to be a powerful tool in the promotion of political communication, as well as scientific and technological advancement in Iran. This article begins by presenting a history of Iran's Internet use, and emphasizes that Internet use is rapidly expanding in this country. However, the government owned entities have been challenged by the changing nature of the technology and have found it difficult to keep up. Despite this fact, families who can afford a computer have one, and the use of the Internet by students enrolled in universities, particularly women, has also seen an increase in Internet use. Internet cafés have also become very popular.

There are a number of ways people in Iran use the Internet. Among young people, there has been a rise in the popularity of coffee-nets (voice chats). Internet sites and blogs are also very popular. In fact, Iranian women "are finding in blogs an alternative medium of expression that is denied them in real public spaces."

This article also discusses the Internet and the role the Islamic Republic plays in its development. An historical picture outlining past governmental procedures involving other media, such as print and broadcast, are presented, which sets the stage for the direction intended for the Internet. Censorship activities are also part of this discussion. The article concludes by pointing out the limitations and possibilities associated with new technologies, such as the Internet.

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Anastacio, A, & Female Students from the Universities of Kabul. (2005, July). Community impact assessment of the Cisco Networking Academy Program Gender Initiative. San Jose, CA: Cisco Learning Institute and Cisco Systems, Inc.
The purpose of this report is to examine the successes and the barriers women face in the Cisco Networking Academy Program. It also goes beyond that scope to include an investigation into the effectiveness of the Gender Initiative on the Afghan community. This study involved interview and questionnaire procedures and was conducted over a 10 day period in June 2005. The questions were translated from English into Dari, the local language, because of concerns the researchers had regarding the ability of respondents to understand English.

A number of different players were included in the study sample. CISCO instructors, CISCO male students, CISCO female students, CISCO female graduates, CISCO academic management, private sector representatives, USAID/UNDP agents, NGO agency employees, and individuals from the government sector. It is important to note that the study sample was too small to make any generalizations about the findings.

Overall, respondents were satisfied with the information technology (IT) and gender initiatives and would like to see the CISCO Academies continue to grow. Respondents would also like to see more practical work during the courses. Most female respondents preferred co-educational classes, especially if the gender ratio is balanced. More needs to be done in terms of job placement for women. In fact, only one woman had found a job after graduating from the CISCO program. And finally, because IT will continue to play an important role in Afghanistan, more aggressive steps need to be taken to make the public aware of these programs in an attempt to attract more women into the IT field.

Dholakia, R., Dholakia, N., & Kshetri, N. (2003). Gender and Internet usage. In H. Bidgoli (Ed.), The Internet encyclopedia (pp. 12-22). New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
This article discusses the gender gap that exists when it comes to Internet adoption and usage. Data show that the gap is closing or has closed, even in more restricted areas of the world, such as the Middle East. Examples of this can be seen in countries such as Saudi Arabia and Kuwait. In Saudi Arabia, the percentage of women who access the Internet is 66 percent. In Kuwait, the number of women who access the Internet is 50 percent. These numbers are significant when considering that the proportion of female Internet users in the Arab states as a whole is between four to six percent.

A number of other issues are also addressed in this article. Topics such as the width and depth of technological adoption and the need for women to be a part of the Internet and the Internet decision-making process are merely a few examples. Training initiatives for women are also emphasized.

Hafkin, N., & Taggart, N. (2001). Gender, information technology, and developing countries: An analytic study. Washington, DC: AED/LearnLink. Retrieved March 15, 2006, from http://www.cours.fse.ulaval.ca/ten-20727/womentic.pdf
This article takes a look at the digital divide and the role women play in the information revolution. The purpose of the study findings presented is to determine what is and is not known about the gender-related issues associated with the divide. It looks at the barriers women face, as well as examines specific areas in which women are benefiting from the technological advances.

Women in developing countries are in the deepest part of the digital divide. The authors point out that those women must be able to access and utilize information technologies otherwise they risk becoming even more marginalized and not joining the "global information society." It is noted, though, that despite the benefits women may receive from information technology, it is not a miracle cure.

Data specific to the Middle East North Africa (MENA) region are also outlined. For example, information regarding the percentage of Internet users (six percent), as well as the percentage of women in university science courses (30 percent) in this region is presented. The use of the Internet for political advocacy and for promoting women's voices is also discussed.

Piecowye, J. (2003). Habitus in transition? CMC use and impacts among young women in the United Arab Emirates. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 8(2). Retrieved March 9, 2006, from http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol8/issue2/piecowye.html
The rapidly changing technological environment is having an impact on the culture in the United Arab Emirates (U.A.E.). Female students in the U.A.E. can decide on their own which elements of global culture they will adopt as their own. This endeavor is undertaken within a context where the females also preserve features of their own values, practices, and traditions. The question then becomes, whether computer-mediated communication (CMC) has an impact on the lives of female students and how their lives are altered as a result of the technology. In some respects, many of the struggles presented in this article are somewhat similar to those presented in the novel Nervous Conditions by Tsitsi Dangarembga.

The author discusses the technological changes occurring in the U.A.E. through a cultural theory lens. A discussion prefacing the notion of females and technology in this environment is one that addresses the definition of culture, culture and the individual, and culture as a social foundation. The article then launches into an examination of the findings resulting from a study of 22, U.A.E. national, female university students. These individuals participated in a two-month email exchange with a group of students in London.

The U.A.E. students are very different from their mothers. They study English as a foreign language and are taught by a predominantly Western faculty. These young females, and others their age, are more likely to adopt technology than those in their parents' generation. A high percentage (94%) report feeling comfortable using computers and have been using the Internet for three to four years. The connections the females have with others via CMC serve to emphasize the differences between the two groups. However, the consumer culture plays a role in their lives and causes the female students to question which aspects of their own culture they should keep. The technology allows them the freedom to choose which pieces they acquire and mix with their "own forms of expression."

UNESCO. (1999). The interaction of Arab women with science and technology. Retrieved, February 17, 2006, from http://www.unesco.org/science/wcs/meetings/arb_doha_e_99.htm
This document is a list of recommendations for getting women into science and technology programs and jobs. For example, the authors call for the need to expose children to information and communications technology (ICT), like the Internet, at the kindergarten level. Another point that is also encouraged is the creation and development of ICT and science jobs for women. This document also encourages women to continue their studies beyond the primary levels. Other issues that are also addressed include the creation of laws to ensure things like equal wages and safe working environments for women.

Wheeler, D. (2001). New technologies, old culture: A look at women, gender, and the Internet in Kuwait. In C. Ess & F. Sudweeks (Eds.), Culture, technology, and communication (pp. 187-212). New York: SUNY Press.
Many believe that the Internet can be used to liberate women by allowing them to present their voices. However, it is not clear whether women in more repressed regions of the world, such as the Middle East, will be able to overcome the deep digital divide that exists for them. This article examines Kuwait - a conservative, Islamic country with restrictive social and cultural practices.

The use of the Internet is on the rise in Kuwait. One sign of affluence in this country is for citizens to get access to the technologies. Enabling its citizens to obtain access to tools, like the Internet, has been a goal for the Kuwaiti government. In fact, they want to be the first techno-culture in the region. One interesting point of note is based on survey data from Kuwait. These data indicate that age, literacy, level of education, and other socioeconomic factors may be more important than gender in determining who has access to the Internet.

A number of other issues related to gender and technology are also addressed in this article. Access to the Internet from home, chatting among young people, and utilizing cybercafés to access the Internet are also discussed. Wheeler also notes the gender boundaries that exist in the real (governmental housing, education, the concrete ceiling) and virtual worlds (segregated seating in cybercafés, reinforcement of stereotypes about girls and technology). Stories presented by three women illustrate their use of Internet technologies in this type of culture. Women in Kuwait may not be on equal footing with the men in that society, but they are experiencing new social encounters in cyberspace.

Wheeler, D. L. (2004). Blessings and curses: Women and the Internet revolution in the Arab world. In N. Sakr (Ed.), Women and media in the Middle East: Power through self-expression (pp. 138-161). London: I. B. Tauris & Co. Ltd.
The positive aspects of the Internet revolution have passed by women in the Arab world, and many remain untouched by the technology. Researchers believe that women in this region represent individuals who are in the deepest part of the digital divide. This chapter is designed to examine and question that assumption.

Access to technologies, such as the Internet is coming slowly, but it is coming. It is difficult to judge the total number of individuals who do have access to the Internet because of the proliferation of Internet cafés. Wheeler points out that one problem is determining exactly how many individuals have access to these cafés, and likens them to newspaper access via cafés during the 19th century.

The technology and the information society are often seen as solutions to issues related to poverty. This technology has the potential to allow women to express their "autonomous voices," "reshape their lives" (p. 143), and bring a new face to Middle East feminism. In order for this to happen, though, women in this region must overcome barriers, such as illiteracy and male domination; otherwise there is the risk that they will be left behind.

This chapter includes interviews with Internet active women from several countries in this region including Egypt, Morocco, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Bahrain. The challenges these women face in accessing the Internet, as well as their online activities are presented. Each woman has a different story to tell, but there are similar themes running throughout the narratives. They talk about illiteracy, access issues - including censorship, and financial and social barriers, the importance of Internet cafés, and the use by youth culture. One of the more interesting discussions presented in this article is the one about youth cyberdating, which is the way young people learn how to safely interact with member of the opposite sex.

Wheeler, D. L. (2003). The Internet and youth subculture in Kuwait. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 8(2). Retrieved March 15, 2006, from http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol8/issue2/wheeler.html
More and more young people in Kuwait are accessing the Internet. Many believe that this interest among the youth in this country will lead to significant changes in Kuwaiti society. At the time this article was published, three-fourths of the students attending Kuwait University are active Internet users. Signs among these individuals indicated that they were experimenting with mixed sex relationships even thought the rules governing face-to-face interactions were still in place.

Because or in spite of the rules restricting face-to-face interactions, many Kuwaiti young people prefer to surf the Internet. The Internet has become a vital tool for communication and entertainment activities. Chatting is particularly popular with this group, and many are involved in cyberdating activities. On a more moderate level, chatting allows young women in this region to learn about the opposite sex and obtain "first-hand knowledge of how men think."

The findings presented in this article show a rather positive side of Internet communication among the Kuwaiti youth culture. Not all researchers share Wheeler's interpretation. Mazeedi and Ismail are two researchers who took a more negative slant and concluded that the type of communication that crossed gender lines and without parental knowledge "represented immoral behaviors." The stories of six Internet users - both male and female - are presented in an attempt to allow them a voice to tell their side of the story.

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Avouched, K., & Enid, G. M. (2004). E-learning challenges in the Arab world: Revelations from a case study profile. Quality Assurance in Education, 12(1), 15-27. Retrieved March 9, 2006, from the Emerald database.
Efforts to emphasize the positive and negative aspects association with e-learning are largely absent from Arab academic circles. There is a wide disconnect between Arab society and information and communications technology (ICT), and social barriers are part of the problem. Issues such as literacy and access to education are merely a couple of examples of these obstacles. E-learning has the potential to bring people together and contribute to the foundation of modernization of the Arab world.

This study was designed to be the first step towards e-learning by assessing attitudes of male and female faculty members at a university located in the Middle East North Africa (MENA) region. As expected, the authors found differences between males and females. The males were more positive towards the concept of e-learning. Females, on the other hand, were very positive towards the notion of training. Individuals in both groups were found to be daily Internet users, which illustrates that it should not be assumed that women are technophobic - at least not at this institution.

Adely, F. (2004). The mixed effects of schooling for high school girls in Jordan: The case of Tel Yahya. Comparative Education Review, 48(4), 353-373.
Girls attending high school in Jordan is a relatively new concept. Adely observed the everyday activities of high school girls and their teachers in one particular school. Questionnaires were distributed to students and interviews with five families were also conducted. In the context of the author's findings, she also presents data about educational opportunities for girls in countries like Iran and Egypt.

Adely points out that several educational opportunities for girls were initially implemented in Jordan to combat poverty. Eventually, the people in the country determined that education for girls and boys was necessary for modernity, development, and success. However, even thought they may have access to education, many women and girls find their role in public life to be rather limited.

Other obstacles women and girls encounter in an attempt to become educated, such as religion, and social practices are also presented. One example the author presents is the negative connotations associated with extracurricular activities. Another is the pressure the girls face in establishing a certain academic status in school, maintaining their reputations, and struggling to avoid encounters with the opposite sex while traveling to and from school. These efforts have enabled these girls to have a life that is very different from their mothers, which may eventually lead to transformative changes for all women in Jordan.

Roudi-Fahimi, F., & Moghadam, V. M. (2003). Empowering women, developing society: Female education in the Middle East and North Africa. Washington, DC: Population Reference Bureau. Retrieved February 11, 2006, from http://www.prb.org/pdf/EmpoweringWomeninMENA.pdf
This article does not address the role information and communications technology (ICT) play in the lives of women, but it does provide an insightful picture into the gender gap that exists in the Middle East North Africa (MENA) region. Educational opportunities in the MENA region are improving for women, but a number of problems still remain. Despite the fact that an increasing number of girls are enrolled in school, issues, such as the quality of the educational experience and illiteracy remain a concern.

Several topics are highlighted for discussion, and they include: cultural and economic forces that reinforce the gender gap, the connection between education and reproductive choices, and ongoing concerns. Gender discrimination, reinforcement of traditional gender roles, and limited opportunities for females are merely a few of the topics examined in relation to the high unemployment rates in the MENA region. A call for improvements in the quality of education, the expansion of vocational training, the development of jobs in the region, and the removal of entrepreneurial-related obstacles for women are presented as possible solutions that should be considered.

United Nations. (1995). FWCW platform for action education and training of women. Retrieved February 10, 2006, from http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/beijing/platform/educa.htm
An education and training diagnosis is the focus of this document presented as part of the Fourth World Conference on Women. Six strategic objectives are outlined as part of this discussion. Topics addressed in these objectives include: ensuring equal access to education, eradicating illiteracy among women, improving women's access to vocational training, science, technology, and continuing education, developing non-discriminatory education and training, allocating sufficient resources for and monitoring the implementation of educational reforms, and promoting lifelong education and training for girls and women. Specific actions to be taken to accomplish these goals are also noted.

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Darraj, S. M. (2002). It's not an oxymoron: The search for an Arab feminism. In D. Hernández & B. Rehman, (Eds.), Colonize this! Young women of color on today's feminism (pp. 295-311). New York: Seal Press.
While it does not discuss the role of technology in the lives of Middle East North Africa (MENA) region per se, this article does provide insight into the formation of the concept of Arab feminism. The author does not consider individuals, like Betty Friedan and other second wave feminists to be representative feminists. In fact, the author notes that she does not consider tasks, such as housework, to be signs of oppression. She also points to the flawed images presented of Middle Eastern women - ones depicting women covered in veils - and notes that Americans want to save these women from their families, but not from their daily life problems such as hunger and war.

Darraj describes her family life and indicates that her family was very progressive. For example, her father encouraged her to become whatever she wanted to be. In search of the modern Arab woman, Darraj traveled to Egypt, Jordan, and Palestine on her quest. It is interesting to note that many women, like Darraj, have feminist interests but would not be considered to be feminists by Western standards.

Some women see no contradiction between feminism and Islam. In fact, the group called the Muslim Sisters is used to illustrate this point. Darraj wrestled with this issue herself, and began looking towards the writings of Black feminists for guidance. While admitting that the Arab culture is patriarchic in structure, Darraj calls for a different kind of feminism - one that allows women to retain their culture and tradition while still providing them with the support needed to voice the concerns of the community. In the end, she has been able to formulate her own brand of feminism - one that did not force her to choose between feminism and family.

Kandiyoti, D. (1991). Women, Islam and the state. Middle East Report, (173), 9-14. Retrieve March 15, 2006, from the JSTOR database.
No data about the role technology plays in the lives of women are included in this article. However, it is interesting in that it examines the role Islam plays in the lives of women in the Middle East. Islamic doctrine continues to be the source of debate in the role of women's rights. Some say the Quran outlines the proper role of women, while others point to the inaccuracies associated with that viewpoint. There are also Third World development specialists and feminist theorists who get involved in this issue. The involvement in this discussion by the various groups leads to new interest in religion and politics in the region, which leads back to Islam. Four countries are profiled, and they include Turkey, Iran, Pakistan, and India. Another area of interest is the discussion on modernization and family legislation in the region.

United Nations Development Programme. (2004). Arab human development report 2004. New York: United Nations Development Programme. Retrieved February 10, 2006, from http://www.rbas.undp.org/ahdr_2004/AHDR_2004_Executive_Summary.pdf
This concentration of this report is not on women and the Internet specifically. However, it is referenced in a number of articles that do deal with the issue of women and technology. The move to freedom and good governance in the Arab world are the main points of the report. There are a few sections that do address some of the issues women face in gaining access to the Internet.

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The Academy of Science for the Developing World. (2005, April 17). Arab women make significant strides in education. TWAS. Retrieved February 17, 2006, from http://www.ictp.trieste.it/~twas/publ/2005-04-17_ArabWomen.html

Belenky, M. F., Clinchy, B. M., Goldberger, N. R., & Tarule, J. M. (1986). Women's ways of knowing. New York: Basic Books.

Filmer, D., King, E. M., & Pritchett, L. (1998). Gender disparity in South Asia: Comparisons between and within countries. Washington, DC: World Bank.

G-8 Greater Middle East Partnership Working Paper. (2004, February 13). Retrieved February 11, 2006, from http://www.meib.org/documentfile/040213.htm

Gilligan, C. (1993). In a different voice. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Hall, K. (1996). Cyberfeminism. In S. C. Herring (Ed.), Computer-mediated communication: Linguistic, social and cross-cultural perspectives (pp. 147-170). Amsterdam: Benjamins.

Haraway, D. J. (1991). A cyborg manifesto: Science, technology, and socialist-feminism in the late twentieth century. In D. J. Haraway (Ed.), Simians, Cyborgs, and women: The reinvention of nature (pp. 149-181). New York: Routledge.

Harding, S. (1986). The science question in feminism. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.

Herring, S. (1993). Gender and democracy in computer-mediated communication. Electronic Journal of Communication, 3(2). Retrieved March 27, 2006, from http://ella.slis.indiana.edu/~herring/ejc.txt

Herring, S. C. (2001). Gender and power in online communication. CSI Working Paper. Retrieved March 27, 2006, from http://rkcsi.indiana.edu/archive/CSI/WP/WP01-05B.html

Margolis, J., & Fisher, A. (2002). Unlocking the clubhouse: Women in computing. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Sales, V. (1999). Women teachers and professional development: Gender issues in the training programs of the Aga Khan Education Service, Northern Areas, Pakistan. International Journal of Educational Development, 19, 409-422.

Sehoole, C. T., & Moja, T. (2004). Pedagogical issues and gender in cyberspace education: Distance education in South Africa. In N. T. Assié (Ed.), Cyberspace, distance learning, and higher education in developing countries (145-166). Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.

Weinberg, A. (1994). The first nuclear era: The life and times of a technological fixer. New York: American Institute of Physics.

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